The field

Where each philosopher stands on each question.

Same colour in a row means the same stance. Point at or focus a cell to trace it across the row; open it for the reading.Same colour in a row means the same stance. Tap a cell for the reading. contested reading rejects, suspends or not addressed (not a stance)Positions drafted for 22 of 22.

Stances of 22 philosophers on 20 questions, grouped by lens

	Socrates, c. 470–399 BCECompare Socrates	Plato, c. 428–348 BCECompare Plato	Aristotle, 384–322 BCECompare Aristotle	Epicurus, 341–270 BCECompare Epicurus	Plotinus, c. 204–270Compare Plotinus	Augustine, 354–430Compare Augustine of Hippo	al-Farabi, c. 872–950Compare al-Farabi	Ibn Sina, 980–1037Compare Ibn Sina	al-Ghazali, 1058–1111Compare al-Ghazali	Ibn Rushd, 1126–1198Compare Ibn Rushd	Suhrawardi, 1154–1191Compare Suhrawardi	Tusi, 1201–1274Compare Nasir al-Din Tusi	Aquinas, c. 1225–1274Compare Thomas Aquinas	Findiriski, c. 1562–1640Compare Mir Findiriski	MS Sadra, c. 1572–1640Compare Mulla Sadra	Descartes, 1596–1650Compare René Descartes	Hume, 1711–1776Compare David Hume	Kant, 1724–1804Compare Immanuel Kant	Hegel, 1770–1831Compare G. W. F. Hegel	Nietzsche, 1844–1900Compare Friedrich Nietzsche	Husserl, 1859–1938Compare Edmund Husserl	Heidegger, 1889–1976Compare Martin Heidegger
Metaphysics
Being and reality	Not addressed	Separate Forms	Substances	Atoms and void	The One beyond being	God as being itself	God as being itself	God as being itself	God as being itself	Substances	The One beyond being	God as being itself	God as being itself · Substances	Not addressed	God as being itself	Mind and matter	Suspends judgment	Transcendental idealism	Absolute idealism	Becoming	Transcendental idealism	Being is not a being
Universals	Moderate realism	Realism before things	Moderate realism	Not addressed	Realism before things	Realism before things	Moderate realism	Moderate realism	Moderate realism	Moderate realism	Realism before things	Moderate realism	Moderate realism	Moderate realism	Realism before things	Conceptualism	Nominalism	Conceptualism	Moderate realism	Nominalism	Realism before things	Not addressed
God and the fundamental	Demonstrable by reason	Demonstrable by reason	Demonstrable by reason	Gods exist but do not intervene	Beyond being	Demonstrable; revelation adds more	Demonstrable by reason	Demonstrable by reason	Demonstrable; revelation adds more	Demonstrable by reason	Demonstrable by reason	Demonstrable by reason	Demonstrable; revelation adds more	Demonstrable by reason	Demonstrable by reason	Demonstrable by reason	Undecidable	Postulate of practical reason	Demonstrable by reason	Rejected	Bracketed	Bracketed
Soul and body	Not addressed	Separable soul	Hylomorphism	Materialism	Separable soul	Separable soul	Hylomorphism	Separable soul	Separable soul	Hylomorphism	Separable soul	Separable soul	Hylomorphism	Not addressed	Hylomorphism	Separable soul	Rejects the question	Suspends judgment	Hylomorphism	Materialism	Embodied, world-involved existence	Embodied, world-involved existence
Death and immortality	Suspends judgment	The soul is immortal	Only intellect, impersonally	Mortal	The soul is immortal	The soul is immortal	The soul is immortal	The soul is immortal	The soul is immortal	Only intellect, impersonally	The soul is immortal	The soul is immortal	The soul is immortal	Not addressed	The soul is immortal	The soul is immortal	Mortal	Postulated, not known	The soul is immortal	Mortal	Suspends judgment	Suspends judgment
The cosmos	Suspends judgment	Ordered by a craftsman	Eternal and unproduced	Eternal and unproduced	Eternal but produced	Created from nothing, with time	Eternal but produced	Eternal but produced	Created from nothing, with time	Eternal but produced	Eternal but produced	Created from nothing, with time	Created from nothing, with time	Own position	Eternal but produced	Created from nothing, with time	Not decidable by reason	Not decidable by reason	Rejects the question	Eternal and unproduced	Not addressed	Not addressed
Causation	Ends govern explanation	Ends govern explanation	Ends govern explanation · Real contingency	Efficient causes only · Real contingency	Causes necessitate	Real causes under a free first cause	Causes necessitate	Causes necessitate	God the only true cause	Causes necessitate · Ends govern explanation	Causes necessitate	Causes necessitate	Real causes under a free first cause · Ends govern explanation · Real contingency	Not addressed	Causes necessitate	Efficient causes only · Real causes under a free first cause	Necessity from the mind	Necessity from the mind	Causation as a derived mode	Necessity from the mind	Causation as a derived mode	Causation as a derived mode
Freedom and determinism	Not addressed	Voluntary action (determinism not posed)	Voluntary action (determinism not posed)	Free, not determined	Freedom as rational self-determination	Free and determined	Voluntary action (determinism not posed)	Free and determined	Free and determined	Free and determined	Not addressed	Free and determined	Free, not determined	Not addressed	Free and determined	Free, not determined	Free and determined	Two standpoints	Freedom as rational self-determination	No free will	Freedom as rational self-determination	Rejects the question
Epistemology
Sources of knowledge	Not addressed	Reason alone	Experience, completed by intellect	Experience	Reason alone · Illumination from a higher intellect	Illumination from a higher intellect	Experience, completed by intellect · Illumination from a higher intellect	Illumination from a higher intellect	Illumination from a higher intellect	Experience, completed by intellect	Illumination from a higher intellect	Illumination from a higher intellect · Experience, completed by intellect	Experience, completed by intellect	Not addressed	Illumination from a higher intellect	Reason alone	Experience	Experience structured by the mind	Rejects the question	Perspectival	Intuition of what is given	Pre-theoretical understanding
Epistemic justification	An account of why	An account of why	Demonstration from first principles	Evidence of what is given · Borne out by experience	Knowledge by presence or identity	A light from a higher source · Trustworthy testimony or revelation	Demonstration from first principles	Demonstration from first principles	Demonstration from first principles · A light from a higher source	Demonstration from first principles	Knowledge by presence or identity	Demonstration from first principles	Demonstration from first principles · Trustworthy testimony or revelation	Not addressed	Knowledge by presence or identity · Demonstration from first principles	Evidence of what is given	Nature, custom or life, not reasons · Borne out by experience	Own position	Own position	Nature, custom or life, not reasons	Evidence of what is given	Rejects the question
Innate knowledge	Not addressed	Innate knowledge	No innate contents	No innate contents	Innate knowledge	Innate knowledge	No innate contents	No innate contents	No innate contents	No innate contents	No innate contents	No innate contents	No innate contents	Not addressed	No innate contents	Innate knowledge	No innate contents	A priori structures, not contents	Rejects the question	A priori structures, not contents	Rejects the question	Rejects the question
Truth	Not addressed	Truth as a feature of being · Correspondence	Correspondence	Correspondence	Truth as a feature of being	Truth as a feature of being	Correspondence · Truth as a feature of being	Correspondence · Truth as a feature of being	Truth as a feature of being	Correspondence	Not addressed	Correspondence	Correspondence · Truth as a feature of being	Not addressed	Correspondence · Truth as a feature of being	Correspondence	Correspondence	Correspondence	The true is the whole	Rejects the question	Correspondence	Unconcealment
Certainty, doubt and the limits of knowledge	Professed ignorance	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Not addressed	Yes	Yes	Sceptical	Yes, within limits	Yes	Fallibilist	Yes	Rejects the question
Axiology
The highest good	Flourishing through virtue	Flourishing through virtue	Flourishing through virtue	Tranquillity and freedom from pain	Contemplation	Union with God	Contemplation	Contemplation	Union with God	Contemplation	Contemplation	Contemplation	Union with God	Not addressed	Contemplation	Flourishing through virtue	Rejects the question	Virtue crowned by happiness	Contemplation	Self-overcoming	Flourishing through virtue	Rejects the question
The basis of morality	Knowledge of the good	Knowledge of the good · Virtue	Virtue	Pleasure	Virtue	Ordered love	Virtue	Virtue	Virtue · Ordered love	Virtue	Not addressed	Virtue	Natural law · Virtue	Not addressed	Not addressed	Virtue	Moral sentiment	Duty	Ethical life	No unconditional foundation	Duty	Rejects the question
Virtue and knowledge	Yes	Knowledge plus habituation	Knowledge plus habituation	Not addressed	Knowledge plus habituation	Knowledge is not enough	Knowledge plus habituation	Knowledge plus habituation	Knowledge plus habituation	Knowledge plus habituation	Not addressed	Knowledge plus habituation	Knowledge plus habituation	Not addressed	Knowledge plus habituation	Knowledge plus habituation	Not knowledge	Not knowledge	Knowledge plus habituation	Not knowledge	Not addressed	Not addressed
Justice	Own position	Order of the soul · Justice by nature	Proportional and corrective equality · Justice by nature	Convention for mutual advantage	Order of the soul	Rendering each their due · Order of the soul · Justice by nature	Proportional and corrective equality	Justice laid down by a prophet-lawgiver · Order of the soul	Order of the soul · Justice laid down by a prophet-lawgiver	Order of the soul · Justice by nature	Not addressed	Order of the soul · Proportional and corrective equality · Justice laid down by a prophet-lawgiver	Rendering each their due · Proportional and corrective equality · Justice by nature	Not addressed	Justice laid down by a prophet-lawgiver	Not addressed	Convention for mutual advantage	Right as realised freedom	Right as realised freedom	Own position	Not addressed	Own position
The state and legitimacy	Rule by the wise	Rule by the wise	Aristocracy of virtue	Withdrawal	Not addressed	Two cities	Rule by the wise	Rule by the wise	Two cities	Rule by the wise	Rule by the wise	Rule by the wise	Mixed constitution	Not addressed	Rule by the wise	Not addressed	Mixed constitution	The rational state	The rational state	Rule by the wise	Not addressed	Rejects the question
Beauty and art	Not addressed	Suspect imitation · Beauty as ascent	Valuable imitation	Not addressed	Beauty as ascent	Beauty as ascent · Suspect imitation	Valuable imitation	Valuable imitation · Beauty as ascent	Beauty as ascent	Valuable imitation	Beauty as ascent	Valuable imitation	Beauty as ascent	Own position	Beauty as ascent	Judgment of taste	Judgment of taste	Judgment of taste	Art as disclosure of truth	Art as disclosure of truth	Not addressed	Art as disclosure of truth
The nature of value	Own position	The Good beyond being	Natural ends	Grounded in feeling	The Good beyond being	Good convertible with being	Good convertible with being	Good convertible with being	Divine will	Natural ends	Own position	Good convertible with being	Good convertible with being · Natural ends	Not addressed	Good convertible with being	Divine will	Grounded in feeling	Rational will	Rational will	Posited by valuation	Own position	Rejects the question